Chapter 71: Noun phrase conjunction and comitative

Feature information for this chapter can be found in feature 71.

1. Feature description

Some languages have a different marker for noun phrase conjunction (e.g. English John and Mary went to the movies) and comitative phrases (e.g. John went to the movies with Mary), as is the case in English (and vs. with). Other languages use the same marker for noun phrase conjunction and comitative phrases, e.g. Principense (ki renders both ‘and’ and ‘with’).

A noun phrase conjunction or a comitative marker may have more functions than the two functions considered here, but these additional functions are disregarded here.

This chapter is closely related to Chapter 70, which deals with comitatives and instrumentals; see also the corresponding chapter in WALS (Stassen 2005a).

2. Feature values

For this feature, the following values are distinguished:

Identity25
Differentiation30
Overlap18
Representation:73

Identity means that only one word is used for the two functions; differentiation refers to languages that have two words for the two functions. Overlap means that there are two words, but that one fulfills only one function, whereas the other fulfills both functions.

Value 1 (identity) occurs in 34% of the APiCS languages. Examples of languages where conjunction and comitative are expressed identically are given in (1) and (2).

(1)
a.
Joj
Joj
épi
with
Jéra
Jéra
ay
go
péché.
fish
Joj and Jéra went fishing.
b.
Joj
Joj
ay
go
péché
fish
épi
with
Jéra.
Jéra
Joj went fishing with Jéra.

Martinican Creole may also use the markers ek or é for both functions.

(2)
a.
Nu
we
ten
have
nos
our
mai
mother
ku
with
nos
our
pai.
father
We have our mother and father.
b.
Benjamin
Benjamin
kria
raise
ku
with
Bahia.
Bahia
Benjamin was raised with Bahia.
(3)
a.
Laso
today
mbi
I
na
with
mo,
you
i
we
ke
cop
gwe
go
biani.
truly
Today you and I are going for sure.
b.
Mbi
I
lango
sleep
na
with
ita
sibling
ti
of
mbi.
I
I lived with my sibling.

Value 2 (differentiation) is found in 41% of the APiCS languages. Examples of languages with the different markers are given in (4)-(6).

(4)
a.
Di
art
uman
woman
ɛn
and
poss
pikin
child
dɔn
pfv
go
go
na
loc
os.
house
The woman and her child have gone home.
b.
Di
art
uman
woman
dɔn
pfv
go
go
na
loc
os
house
wit
with
poss
pikin.
child
The woman went home with her child.
(5)
a.
Frer-ta
brother-poss.2sg
epi
and
ser-ta
sister-poss.2sg
le
si
vja?
come
Are your brother and sister coming?
b.
Ma
1sg
fe
make
vwajaʃ
trip
ave(k)
with
Marie
Marie
pu
purp
visite
visit
Tahiti.
Tahiti
I made a trip with Marie in order to visit Tahiti.
(6)
a.
Da
art
wahinɛ
woman
no
neg
go
go
wid
with
him.
3sg
The woman didn't go with him.
b.
Mi
1sg.obl
kapo
couple
o
of
ɾa
art
bɹaɾaz
brothers
wi
1pl
go
go
ap
up
baɪ
by
ɾa
art
waɾɚtæŋ.
water_tank
Me and a couple of the guys, we go up to the water tank.

In example (6b), there is no overt noun phrase conjunction, but a conjunction may occur, as for example in mi æn papa ‘me and Papa’.

The bilingual mixed language Michif displays three comitative constructions: avik/avek, wiichi, and the verb peeshaw ‘bring’, as well as three noun phrase conjunctions: pi, miina, and eekwa.

Value 3 (overlap) is less widespread than value 1 and value 2, but it still occurs in 25% of the APiCS languages. In most cases, it is the marker of noun phrase conjunction (‘and’) which fulfills only one function:

(7)
a.
Ananshi
Ananshi
mi
with
Tekoma
Tekoma
sinu
3pl
a
pst
lo
go
it.
out
Ananshi and Tekoma went outside.
b.
Am
3sg
a
pst
wun
live
mi
with
ēn
art
hou
old
mulā́.
miller
He lived with an old miller.
c.
Ananshi
Ananshi
en
and
Tekoma
Tekoma
sinu
3pl
a
pst
lo
go
it.
out
Ananshi and Tekoma went outside.
(8)
a.
Mi
1sg
with
Adrianu
Adrianu
trubaiá
work
djunt
together
n'un
on=det
bárk.
ship
Adrianu and I worked together on a ship.
b.
El
3sg
bai
go
pa
to
Praia
Praia
with
se
3sg.poss
irmon.
brother
He went to Praia with his brother.
c.
Relasãu
relationship
entre
between
mi
1sg
y
and
nha
poss.1sg
mãi
mother
senpr
always
foi
cop.pst
mut
very
bon.
good
The relationship between my mother and me was always very good.
(9)
a.
Núbi
Nubi
ta
gen
Kíbra
Kibera
ma
with
Mambása
Mombasa
ma
neg
'endisi
have
tofaúti.
difference
The Nubi of Kibera and the ones of Mombasa are not different.
b.
Úmun
3pl
come
ma
with
British.
British
They came with the British.
c.
Kan
ant
bes
only
anás
people
ta
gen
Mijikénda
Mijikenda
u
and
anás
people
ta
gen
Rabái.
Rabai
There were just the Mijikenda and the Rabai.

In languages which use constructions similar to English ‘together with’, it is the comitative marker which expresses only one function. This is the case in Casamancese Creole and Haitian Creole. In Casamancese Creole, ku ‘and, with’ connects noun phrases and heads comitatives, and juntu ku ‘together with’ is restricted to comitatives. In Haitian Creole, ak ‘and, with’ and its variants connect noun phrases and head comitatives, and ansanm avèk ‘together with’ heads only comitatives.

A similar situation can be found in Nigerian Pidgin. In this language one marker is used for both functions, but two markers are restricted to one function each. Wit ‘and, with’ fulfills both functions; and ‘and’ is restricted to the conjoining of noun phrases, and the serial verb folo ‘follow’ is restricted to the comitative:

(10)
Ì
3sg
fut
folo
follow
dèm
3pl
dans.
dance
S/he will dance with them.

Nigerian Pidgin is the only APiCS language with a serial verb expressing comitative.

3. Distribution

There is a certain concentration of value 1 (identity) in the Atlantic area (15 out of 25 languages). These 15 languages are all European-based, and since all the European base languages have differentiation, an African substrate influence is very likely in this domain. As will be mentioned below, identity is predominant in sub-Saharan Africa.

Value 2 (differentiation) is more common in South and Southeast Asia, with some languages in the Atlantic. Almost half of the languages exhibiting value 2 are English-based. There are only four English-based creoles exhibiting value 1 (the three Suriname creoles and Bislama).

Value 3 (overlap) is represented more or less equally in all regions.

WALS (Stassen 2005a) has only two values for this feature: identity and differentiation. Identity is predominant in sub-Saharan Africa and in the Pacific, whereas differentiation is found predominantly in Europe and South Asia. The numbers are almost identical for the two WALS values (103 out of 234 languages exhibit identity, i.e. 44%, and 131 differentiation, i.e. 56%). This parallels the situation in the APiCS languages, where there are somewhat fewer languages that show identity than languages that show differentiation.