Chapter 104: Focusing of the noun phrase

Feature information for this chapter can be found in feature 104.

1. Feature description

A noun or a noun phrase can be focused (contrastively) by different means. Among the most commonly used strategies in the APiCS languages, we find cleft constructions. A cleft construction is a biclausal construction consisting of a focus clause and a background clause (in the APiCS languages, the background clause always follows the focus). The focus clause consists of the focus (i.e. the focused noun phrase) and normally a highlighter, either a copula or a focus particle, as in (1) (with a copula) and (2) (with a focus particle).

(1)
Di
[art
man
man]
iz
cop
hu
rel
se
say
so.
so
The man is the one who said that.
(2)
foc
papa
[father]
ki
rel
do
kay-la.
house-def
It is my father who built this house.

If the highlighter is not a copula, a focus construction is not recognizable as a cleft unless the background clause is marked by a relative particle. Thus, cleft constructions must have either a copula highlighter or a relative-marked background clause or both.

Another strategy is fronting of the noun phrase, with or without a focus particle. And still another possibility is to focus the noun in situ, i.e. without moving it outside the clause, but with a focus particle.

Note that many languages have two or more focusing strategies; focusing solely through intonation is not considered here.

2. The values

The following nine values are distinguished; the first five are types of cleft constructions, and values 6-8 are types of focus fronting constructions.

exclshrdall
Cleft with copula before focus191231
Cleft with copula after focus246
Cleft with focus particle before focus3811
Cleft with focus particle after focus066
Bare cleft (without highlighter)51015
Fronting with particle before focus358
Fronting with particle after focus7613
Bare fronting (without particle)235
In situ focusing (with particle)336
Representation:69

Value 1 (cleft with copula before focus) is the most common value. It occurs in 9 Ibero-Romance-based languages, in 17 English-based languages, in 3 Dutch-based languages, in Mauritian Creole, and in Mixed Ma’a/Mbugu. Some languages use a relativizer (example 2), some do not (examples 1 and 3).

(3)
Ta
cop
e
[art
kakalaka
cockroach]
e
art
vruminganan
ant.pl
a
pfv
kome.
eat
It is the cockroach the ants have eaten.
(4)
Si
neg.cop
mzemó
[1.herd.nmlz]
akutí'i
3sg.cond.carry
haráza.
in.river
It is not the herdsman who brought them to the river.

Nigerian Pidgin and Berbice Dutch optionally use a particle to signal the right edge of the focus.

(5)
Ì
expl
cop
[poss.1sg
fada
father
shà
pcl]
we
rel
byud
build
art
haws.
house
It is my father who built the house.

Value 2 (cleft with copula after focus) occurs in three English-based languages (Belizean Creole, Vincentian Creole, Nicaraguan Creole English), in Cape Verdean Creole of São Vicente, in Afrikaans, and in Kinubi. In all these languages, the background clause is introduced by a relativizer.

(6)
Ána
1sg
ya
cop
al
rel
ásuru
tie.up
kurá
leg
tái
poss.1sg
dé.
def
I am the one who tied up my leg.

Value 3 (cleft with focus particle before focus) occurs in seven French-based languages, in Nigerian Pidgin, in Kikongo-Kituba, in Juba Arabic, and in Ambon Malay.

(7)
Si
foc
mukanda
book
yayi
dem
ya
rel
yandi
3sg
sumbaka.
buy.pst
It is this book he bought.

Value 4 (cleft with focus particle after focus) occurs in two Portuguese-based creoles (Angolar, Principense), in two French-based languages (Seychelles Creole, Mauritian Creole), in Nigerian Pidgin, and in Sango.

(8)
Balele
kind.of.dance
thô
foc
ki
rel.sbj
have
vungu
melody
si
dem
ma
rel.nsbj
a
gener
ka
hab
kata
sing
[...].
[...]
It is the balele that has this melody that they would sing [...].

Value 5 (bare cleft, without highlighter) occurs in seven Ibero-Romance-based languages, in two English-based languages, in five French-based languages, and in Michif.

(9)
Sertu
sure
ile
3sg
teng
have
sorti.
luck
Nos
1pl
ki
rel
teng
have
mofinedja.
bad.luck
He certainly is lucky. It is we who are unlucky.
(10)
Bann
pl
zonm
man
ki
rel
danse
dance
sa
dem
tinge.
tinge
It was only the man who danced the tinge.
(11)
Mu
1.poss
nipaenglet
clasp
awa
dem
kaa-wanih-ak.
rel-lose.him-1sbj.3obj
It is this clasp of mine that I lost.

Value 6 (fronting with particle before focus) occurs in three English-based languages (San Andres Creole English, Nigerian Pidgin, Gullah), in three French-based languages (Louisiana Creole, Reunion Creole, Tayo), in Singapore Bazaar Malay, and in the bilingual mixed language Gurindji Kriol.

(12)
Duh
foc
Sara
Sarah
we
1pl
duh
prog
talk
talk
about.
about
It's Sara we are talking about.
(13)
Itu
foc
selalu
always
tinggal
live
sini
here
punya
poss
orang
person
pakai
use
ini
dem
pasar
market
ah.
emph
It is the people living here who use this market.

Value 7 (fronting with particle after focus) occurs in five Portuguese-based languages, in four English-based languages, in Sango, in Lingala, in Juba Arabic, and in Pidgin Hawaiian.

(14)
Ol
pl
papa
father
blong
pos
mi
1sg
nomo
foc
oli
agr
bildim
build
haos
house
ia.
def
It was my father and uncles who built the house.
(15)
Anína
1pl
yáwu
foc
birówa
fut.go
géru
change
haját
thing.pl
del.
dem.pl
It's us that will change these things.
(16)
Oe
2sg
ka
foc
mea
thing
pepehi
beat
kela
det
wahine
wife
oe.
poss.2sg
You're the one who beats your wife.

Value 8 (bare fronting, without particle) occurs in Casamancese Creole, in Papiamentu, in Chinese Pidgin English, in Hawai’i Creole, and in Berbice Dutch.

(17)
Bo
2sg
buki
book
mi
1sg
a
pfv
lesa.
read
It is your book I read.

Value 9 (in situ focusing with particle) is found in Sri Lanka Portuguese, in Sri Lankan Malay, in Tok Pisin, and in Media Lengua.

(18)
Go
1sg
aayər
water
jo
foc
miinung.
drink
It's water that I am drinking.
See example 66-120

In Cape Verdean Creole of São Vicente, there is a construction cop np cop rel background, and in Korlai, the focus construction is np rel cop background.

3. Distribution

Most APiCS languages (92%) use one of the possible cleft constructions (values 1-5), and 35% use fronting of the focused noun or noun phrase (values 6-8). As mentioned above, value 1 (copula + focus + background clause) is the most widespread value; it occurs mainly in the Atlantic area (23 out of 31 languages).