Chapter 72: Nominal and verbal conjunction

Feature information for this chapter can be found in feature 72.

1. Introduction

In English and other European languages, the same coordinator (and) is used for the conjunction of NPs and the conjunction of verb phrases and clauses:

(1) a. the house and the garden

b. She was singing and dancing.

c. The children are playing and the adults are talking.

But in many pidgin and creole languages, nominal conjunction is expressed differently from verbal/clausal conjunction, e.g. in Palenquero (Schwegler 2013), where ku is used for nominal conjunction and i is used for clausal conjunction:

(2)
a.
Malia
Maria
ku
with
Ana
Ana
ta
prog
etulé
study
there
kasa
house
Bitto.
Victor
Maria and Ana are studying at the house of Victor.
b.
Juan
Juan
ta
prog
kumé
eat
i
and
muhé
wife
si
his
toabía
still
ta
be
there
kusina
kitchen
trabahando.
working
Juan is (already) eating and his wife is still in the kitchen working.

We thus ask whether nominal and verbal (or clausal) conjunction is expressed identically or is differentiated, along the lines of the corresponding WALS chapter (Haspelmath 2005):

Identity, overtly expressed37
Identity, expressed by juxtaposition1
Differentiation26
Overlap7
Identity and differentiation4
Representation:75

Note that for the purposes of this chapter, we are not differentiating between conjunction of verb phrases and conjunction of clauses, so “verbal conjunction” is short for ‘verbal or clausal conjunction’.

2. Identity

Many APiCS languages are like the European languages in that they use the same marker for both contexts. This is particular common in English-based languages, where a reflex of and often survives (as well as in Afrikaans):

(3)
a.
Bruce and his friend laughed and danced.
b.
mi
1sg.obl
æn
and
papa
Papa
siŋ
sing
æ
and
dans
dance
(tugeɾa)
together
Me/I and Papa sing and dance together.
c.
Jan
John
en
and
Marie
Mary
sing
sing
en
and
dans.
dance
John and Mary are singing and dancing.

But it is also found in languages with non-European lexifiers such as Chinuk Wawa (pi), Ambon Malay (deng), Juba Arabic (wa, inherited from Arabic), and Sango (na). In Zamboanga Chabacano, the borrowed form pati ‘and’ can be used in both ways (just as Spanish-derived i).

In the French-based creoles, the words e (< French et) or epi (< French et puis ‘and then’) can often be used both nominally and verbally, e.g.

(4)
a.
Mari
Mary
épi
and
Jan
John
Mary and John
b.
Jan
John
ka
prog
kwenyen
play
tanbou
drum
épi
and
Mari
Mary
ka
prog
dansé.
dance
John is playing drum and Mary is dancing.

This use of épi is quite remarkable, because it shows the extension of a coordinator that was originally used verbally to the nominal domain.

While most languages with identity possess an overt coordinator, one language only uses juxtaposition:

(5)
a.
Kaise
how
ek
one
taim
time
Simi
Simi
tum-log
2-pl
senge
together
jao?
go
How was the time Simi and you all went together?
b.
U-loŋ
3-pl
ekdam
emph
cup
quiet
ekdam
emph
kape.
fearful
They were really quiet and absolutely shaking (with fear).

3. Differentiation

Quite a few creole languages show the differentiating pattern seen above in (2) for Palenquero, with two different coordinators. Typically, the nominal conjunction marker is an innovation and derives from the preposition ‘with’ (cf. Palenquero ku < Spanish con), while the verbal conjunction marker is old (cf. Palenquero i < Spanish i). This is found in most of the Portuguese-based creoles as well as in the more radical creoles of the Caribbean region, such as Berbice Dutch, Saramaccan and Nengee, and Guyanais and Haitian Creole (see also Chapter 71 on nominal conjunction and comitative function), e.g.

(6)
Nengee
a.
Baa
Mr
Dagu
Dog
anga
with
Baa
Mr
Koo
Turtle
be
PST
go
go
piki
pick
manyan.
mango
Mr Dog and Mr Turtle had gone mango picking.
b.
Baa
Mr
B.
B.
be
PST
e
IPFV
sikiifi
write
biifi
letter
da
and
Baa
Mr
D.
D.
be
PST
e
IPFV
leisi
read
buku.
book
Mr B. was writing letters and Mr D. was reading.

The use of a conjunction marker that also (and originally) means ‘with’ and that is restricted to nominal conjunction is a striking example of a substrate-influenced feature (cf. Michaelis & Rosalie 2000). While differentiation is found throughout the world (except in western Eurasia), it is particularly common in Africa (Haspelmath 2005). Characteristically, differentiation is also found in the Bantu-based languages Lingala, Kikongo-Kituba, Fanakalo, and Mixed Ma’a/Mbugu. However, these lanaguages tend to use juxtaposition rather than a distinct coordinator for verbal/clausal conjunction.

Note that in many languages, juxtaposition is an additional option, especially with verbal conjunction (as in English, where and can be omitted from 1c). For this chapter, juxtaposition was taken into account only where it was the only or the major option. For example, in Papiá Kristang, juxtaposition is explicitly said to be the major option for verbal conjunction:

(7)
Papiá Kristang (Baxter 2013)
a.
yo
1sg
sa
gen
papa
father
ku
com
yo
1sg
sa
gen
kanyong
elder.brother
my father and my brother
b.
eli
3sg
ta
prog
bebé
drink
sura,
toddy
ta
prog
kumí
eat
seba
pig.ear
He is drinking palm wine and eating pig's ear.

4. Overlap

In five languages, there are two forms, one of which can be used in both ways (identity) and one of which is restricted (differentiation). Interestingly, in all cases, the form with broader distribution is the old coordinator, while the form with narrower distribution derives from a comitative marker:

(8)
old form (nominal/verbal) from comitative (only nominal)
Cape Verdean (S.V.) y ma
Chinese Pidgin English and long
Diu Indo-Portuguese i ku
Kinubi u ma
Nigerin Pidgin ànd wìt, folo
Reunion Creole e ek

In Reunion Creole, for example, é comes from French et and can be used nominally (9a) and verbally (9b), while ek comes from avec 'with' and is only used nominally (9c):

(9)
a.
Zan Pyer
é
Zan René
Jean-Pierre and Jean-René
b.
Ma
POSS.1SG
lanp
lamp
la
PRF
etin
go.out
é
and
la
PRF
ralumé
light.up
My lamp went out and lighted up again.
c.
Le
DEF
papa
father
ek
with
le
DEF
maman
mother
COP.PRS
trakasé.
worried
The father and the mother are worried.

5. Identity and differentiation

Finally, a few languages have three different forms, one of which can be used nominally and verbally, while the other two forms can be used only nominally and only verbally, respectively. For example, in Pichi, àn ‘and’ can be used nominally and verbally, wìt ‘with, and’ can be used only nominally, and we can be used only for clausal conjunction.